The Islamic Drama Read online

  It is difficult to explain why the powerful Sassanid Empire, which produced such magnificent social and cultural institutions, was so easily overthrown by Muslim Arabs in 652. Ghirshman explains that extraordinary shift in power as follows:

  The splendid and gigantic edifice of Sassanian Iran, which had functioned with such magnificence and precision, crumbled to pieces in the space of a few years. But the Arabs did not owe their success to their political superiority or to the genius of their military leaders. It was the ancient world, the world of Asia, Europe and Africa that gave them their victory, a world exhausted by war, undermined by social and religious strife and powerless to resist a united, inspired, fanatical, and resolute enemy.11

  The triumph of Arabic Islam did not happen overnight. For almost four centuries Islam had to fight with Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, Mazdakism, Christianity, Judaism and even Buddhism. However, it is important to understand that the gradual ‘Islamization’ of Iran was accompanied by the ‘Iranization’ of Islam. In other words, Islam was deeply influenced by Persian civilization and culture while it was dominating Iran and its social and cultural life. It was gradually accepted, but was given an Iranian rather than Arabian slant. It was this Iranian resistance to Arab domination that led to the development of Shi’ism, which differed significantly from Suniʹism, the branch of Islam followed by the majority of Arabs. Shiʹism was a passionate religion that reflected most of the characteristics of Iranian culture and life, and it provided many elements necessary for the development of the Taʹziyeh.

  For two hundred years, Iranians struggled in different ways to win back their political and cultural independence from the Arabs. In the period between 641, when the last organized military resistance of the Iranians was crushed by the Arabs, and 867, when Yaʹqub Layth of Sistan rose and defeated the Arab Caliph of Baghdad and restored the political independence of a large part of Iran, there were a number of revolts (including those led by Abu Muslim and Babak Khuramdin) against the political domination of the Arab Caliphs. From the ninth century the Caliphs of Baghdad ruled only in matters of religion and not in politics in Iran. Iran began again to develop its cultural identity. This process of cultural development was interrupted by a series of invasions, first by tribes from Central Asia in the eleventh century, and then by Genghis Khan and the Mongols and Tartars in 1219. These invaders brought poverty, chaos, destruction and, above all, ‘cultural cleansing’ to the Iranian people. Throughout this dark period, however, Iranians continued to resist the invaders and fought to keep their cultural heritage. A powerful example of this cultural resistance is the epic of Shah-nameh, or Book of Kings, written by Ferdowsi in 994. The composition of this book, which is now regarded as the greatest epic poem of the Persian language, took Ferdowsi 35 years to accomplish. L.Lochhart and J.A.Boyle write: ‘This work has contributed more than any other to the moulding of Persian national consciousness: in it Ferdowsi has preserved for all time the myths, legends and traditions of pre-Islamic Iran.’12

  Although Chapter 3 will establish the importance of this book in the development of the Taʹziyeh, it is important to note here that many characteristics of its heroes and battle scenes—and in particular, its story-telling technique—have been embodied in the Taʹ ziyeh. Many scholars have noted the extent to which the Book of Kings embodies elements that we associate with the dramatic form. G.M.Wickens writes:

  We have in the Shah-nameh all the elements of the dramatic form except the formal structure itself, and that this can be supplied by little more than a typographical rearrangement and a little judicious editorial cutting. By this means some of the most important themes in the work could be set out in such a way as to alternate between dramatically significant speeches by the personae and commentary by the poet and/or others. If that should make you think of the Greek drama on the one hand and Bertolt Brecht on the other, that may only go to indicate the timelessness and the topical relevance of the first great figure in the literature of Islamic Persia.13

  From the middle of the thirteenth century to the establishment of the Safavid state at the beginning of the sixteenth century, Iran remained politically fragmented, being ruled by many local dynasties. Shah Ismail of the Safavids brought an end to this situation when he established a dynasty in 1501 that, in a short time, unified the country under one central power. This dynasty was important not only for bringing stability and order to Iran, but also for making Shiʹism the state religion. Shahrokh Meskoob writes: The Safavid Shah Esma’il became monarch of a country in which the majority of the people were Sunnis. He promulgated Shiism, which was the religion of the king and the Safavid government…and made it the faith of the majority of the population.’14

  This monarchy, which lasted from 1501 to 1735, restored the glory and grandeur of the past. Nine centuries after the fall of the Sassanid dynasty and the destruction of the Persian Empire by the Arabs, the Safavid dynasty re-established an Iranian empire that was in many ways the equal of the Sassanid Empire, extending Iran’s borders and making Shiʹism the state religion just as the Sassanids had done with Zoroastrianism. In addition, over time the central government was able to re-establish its control over the entire Iranian plateau. The establishment of the Safavid dynasty was not only a turning point in the political history of Iran, but was also important in the religious history of the country and in the creation of the Taʹziyeh. Without the nationalization of Shiʹism, it would have been culturally impossible for the Taʹziyeh to have developed. As a result of the influence of Shiʹism, poets, who used to write about kings or to write love stories, turned their attention to religious subjects and created a large number of religious collections of poetry, which later served as a major dramatic source for the Taʹziyeh. Among those collections, the one that became the main source for the Taʹziyeh plays was Rowzatu’l Shuhada or The Garden of Martyrs by Mullah Hussein Vaez Kashefi.15

  During the Safavid period, and especially during the reign of Shah Abass, the celebrations that marked the holy month of Muharram included a ritual presentation of the tragic death of Imam Hussein, who had been martyred with many of his family and followers in the desert of Karbala. This ritual became one of national importance and it is still performed. The Taʹziyeh is a highly stylized theatrical presentation of this tragedy.

  The nationalization of Shiʹism during the Safavid period coincided with some of the first contacts that Iranians made with the Western world. These first occurred in the seventeenth century, and one of the results was that the country gradually came to accept many political and cultural elements of the Western world. This Western influence on Iran took place especially in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, when, for example, European philosophical and literary works were translated into Persian. The works of Molière were translated in 1869, and those of Schiller and Shakespeare appeared in 1880.16 In addition, Western social ideas were brought to Iran by travellers and students during this period.

  After the fall of the Safavid Empire, the most important political event in Iran was the appearance of Nader Shah and the establishment of the Afshari state in 1735. First Nader Shah defeated the Turks and captured Baghdad, and then in 1737 he marched into India and occupied Delhi. The Afshari dynasty did not last long and was overthrown by Karim Khan of the Zand dynasty in 1758. This dynasty was in turn short-lived and was soon replaced by the Qajars, who remained in power from 1779 to 1925. It was in the Qajar period that the Taʹziyeh, with the support of the kings, reached its high point and became a national form of performing art in Iran. However, apart from the development of the Taʹ ziyeh, the Qajar dynasty was disastrous for Iran. During its rule all the political and cultural achievements of previous dynasties were undermined and Iran became so weak that it soon fell into the hands of foreign powers. The corruption, superstition and ignorance of the kings of the Qajar dynasty turned Iran from an independent power into a semi-colonial state.

  The level of destruction brought about by the Qajars made the nation susceptible to re
volution. The Constitutional Revolution in 1906, which introduced the first Western parliamentary system to Iran, was followed 15 years later by the coup of Reza Shah Pahlavi in 1921, which brought an end to the Qajar dynasty.

  Reza Shah Pahlavi, with the support of many nationalists and intellectuals, began to wipe out many of the social and cultural elements associated with the Qajar dynasty. These were considered reactionary and harmful to the development of a modern Iran based on the Western model. Elements of the Islamic religion that were regarded as fanatical were targeted, and, unfortunately, the Taʹziyeh was considered to be one of those elements. The result was that this form of drama was banned, and the Takiyeh Dowlat, a truly magnificent playhouse, was razed to the ground. In addition the Taʹziyeh troupes were forced to take refuge in small cities and villages far from the capital and far from the reach of the government’s police force.

  The era of Reza Shah’s reign, which is known as the post-constitutional era, ended with his abdication, which was forced upon him by the Allied Forces in 1941. L.P.Elwell-Sutton writes:

  Reza Shah’s foreign policy aimed at securing Iran’s independence and in particular eliminating the influence of the great powers whose rivalries had for so long plagued the country… Unfortunately, this cautious foreign policy was not to stand the Shah in very good stead after World War Two had broken out in 1939. Although Iran declared her strict neutrality from the outset, the sudden reversal of the war situation in June, 1941, by the German invasion of Russia brought the Middle East in general and Iran in particular once again into the center of world affairs. The Western Allies, desperate to find a means of conveying war supplies to the Soviet Union, could see only one route open to them, the one through Iran… On 25th August 1941, the two powers invaded the country from north and south. On 16th September the Shah abdicated in favour of his son Muhammad Reza and left his homeland never to return.17

  Under Muhammad Reza Pahlavi (1941–79), the modernization/ Westernization of the country, with the help of money from oil production, became so rapid that the traditional structure of the society was almost destroyed. An absolute monarchy, relying on concentration of power at the top, divided the country into two separate states socially, culturally and economically. On the one hand there was a tiny Westernized state that had the support of the bureaucrats and technocrats of the modern middle class, and on the other hand there was a large traditional state that had the support of the religious leaders and the members of the traditional middle class.

  The most important cultural contribution of the Pahlavi government was the establishment of the Festival of Arts in Shiraz. Under the direction of a film-maker and Taʹziyeh scholar, Farrokh Ghaffary, the festival became a major international event not only for avant-garde Western theatre, but also for traditional forms of Iranian theatre. Leading avant-garde directors such as Peter Brook, Jerzy Grotowski, Robert Wilson, Shuji Teriyama, Peter Schumann, Tadeusz Kantor and André Gregory were among many who presented productions at the festival. More importantly, however, it was at this festival that the Taʹziyeh was officially performed after years of having been banned by the government. This encouraged many young Iranian scholars to carry out research on the Taʹziyeh and to collect materials and plays that were disappearing.

  The Islamic Revolution of 1978/79, led by Ayatollah Khomeini, changed Iran into a theocratic state. Just as the Constitutional Revolution of 1906 and the overthrow of the Qajar dynasty had been a reaction to a feudal system that had had a close relationship with religion, so the Islamic Revolution was a reaction to the Westernization of the country and the dictatorship of the Pahlavi regime. Michael M.J.Fischer writes:

  The contemporary change in Iran exhibits parallels to and differences from modern European and American history. The parallels lie in the challenge of science and technology to religious fundamentalism and in the changes in social consciousness encouraged by modern education and a more modern class structure or division of interest groups. The differences result from the suppression of the Constitutional Revolution at the turn of the century and a return, from 1925 to 1978, to an authoritarian, albeit modernizing, monarchy, as well as from a still very underdeveloped industrial economy and a demographic explosion. This last means an infusion into the national political arena of a very young population imbued with a popular religious culture and an enthusiastic attitude toward modern technology. The young people coming into the modern labor market from the villages and towns of Iran, literate and with modern education, retain a profound respect for Islamic morals and tradition, if not necessarily for the scholasticism of their religious leaders. Their cultural identity is rooted in the past, their vision turns toward the future. The social and cultural contradictions and tensions of modern Iran were dramatically catapulted into international attention by the 1977–1979 revolution, which ousted the Pahlavi dynasty.18

  Of importance during the Islamic Revolution in mobilizing the feelings of the Iranians against the Pahlavi regime were the mourning rituals of Muharram—the very same rituals from which the Taʹziyeh had developed. Although the Taʹziyeh now enjoyed more freedom under the Islamic regime and received more support from the public, it had to answer the challenge of those critics who were now raising their voices against religious drama. These critics were religious leaders who had never endorsed public portrayal of imams (the main holy characters of the Taʹziyeh) on the stage, and who could now impose their views on the government and the public. Whether or not these powerful religious leaders will be able to achieve their aim of suppressing the Taʹziyeh remains to be seen. However, we do know from the 300 years of continuing tradition that the Taʹ ziyeh, historically, culturally and religiously, is strong enough to stand against such opposition. The performers of the Taʹziyeh have learned how to fight and win and celebrate, and how to lose and hide and survive for the next round. Is this not also the story of Iran and the Iranians?

  NOTES

  1 . The contribution of Iran (Persia) to world civilization, as Arthur J.Arberry states, is a massive one. He writes: To the Greeks and Romans, who fought long and inconclusive wars with them, and to the Arabs who conquered them, the Persians presented a picture of a powerful empire, cunningly organized, where the arts of war and peace flourished, but where the natural virility of the rulers was slowly but surely exhausted by luxurious living. The conception of the “royal splendor” and the elaborate ceremonial of the imperial court, passed from Persia to Byzantium and Baghdad, thus to affect medieval Europe. Persians contributed to Islamic culture many of its most creative and attractive features. Persian was the language and the ethos of the Mogul emperors of India. Persia did much to civilize the Turks, whose literature, art, and music owe much to Persian inspiration. Persia has delighted the world with her tolerant philosophy, with her graceful poetry, her miniature paintings, her inlaid metalwork, her lustre tiles and figured bowls, and her exquisite carpets.’ Shiraz, Persian City of Saints and Poets, Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1960, p. xii.

  2 . The name ‘Persia’, which is used in European languages for ‘Iran’ is taken from the name of this tribe.

  3 . Iran from the Earliest Times to the Islamic Conquest, London, Penguin, 1954, p. 133.

  4 . Zoroaster (Zarathustra) (c. 630–c. 550 BC) was born in the north of Iran. His teachings are collected in the holy book of Avesta, which is the basis of Zoroastrianism.

  5 . Persia, Bridge of Turquoise, ed. Roloff Beny, London, Thames and Hudson, 1976, p. 35.

  6 . The Hymns of Zarathustra, trans. M.Henning, London, 1952, p. 39.

  7 . The Hymns of Zarathustra, trans. J.Duchesen-Guillemin, London, John Murray, 1952, pp. 57–9.

  8 . Razi, Hashem, Mithraism, Tehran, Behjat Publication, 1992, p. 8.

  9 . The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries, New York, Oxford University Press, 1989, p. 4.

  10 . Safa, Z., Gang-Sokhan, 3 vols, Tehran, Ibne-Sina, 1961, pp. 129–30. (An asterisk indicates that the extract has been translated from Persian into English by J.Ma
lekpour.)

  11 . Iran from the Earliest Times, p. 349.

  12 . Persia, History and Heritage, London, Henry Melland, 1978, p. 33.

  13 . Iranian Civilization and Culture, Montreal, McGill University, 1972, pp. 143–4.

  14 . Iranian Nationality and the Persian Language, Washington, DC, Mage Publishers, 1992, pp. 128–9.

  15 . Kashefi was a Sunni traditionalist and Qurʹan commentator. In The Garden of Martyrs he wrote about the martyrdom of Imam Hussein in a such moving way that the book was enthusiastically adopted by Shiʹa poets.

  16 . Adabiyat-e Namayeshi dar Iran, vol. I, p. 303.

  17 . Persia, History and Heritage, pp. 53–4.

  18 . Iran, From Religious Dispute to Revolution, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1980, pp. vii–viii.

  CHAPTER 2

  Islam and the Taʹ ziyeh

  IN ORDER TO UNDERSTAND the Taʹziyeh as a form of performing art we need to understand that most of its elements, such as plot, character, diction, thought, spectacle and song, have been taken directly from the Shiʹa branch of Islam. Consequently, it is absolutely necessary to understand the nature of this faith. This is particularly vital because, despite the fact that Islam is one of the world’s great religions and has over one billion followers, very few Westerners know about its central beliefs. Indeed, Islam has been so misunderstood and feared in the Western world that all kinds of fictions have been invented about it.1

  Etymologically Islam means ‘surrender’ and ‘obedience’. According to the Holy Qurʹ an,2 man should surrender himself to the One God and obey His commands: ‘Who is better in religion than he who surrendereth his purpose to Allah [God] while doing good to men and followeth the tradition of Abraham, the upright?’3